Technical writing
- North Carolina State University 논문 작성 지침 https://projects.ncsu.edu/labwrite/
- 임재춘의 과학기술자글쓰기
- Research basics https://library.mwcc.edu/research_basics
문장줄이기
- https://www.slideshare.net/blissray/ss-39461544
국립국어원 한국어 어문 규범 https://kornorms.korean.go.kr/main/main.do
괄호 뒤 조사의 띄어쓰기 (우리말바로쓰기)
- 질문 : 1. 영조물기관 (서울대학교, 국립교도소, 국립대학교)는 행정기관으로 보지 않는다. 2. 영조물기관(서울대학교, 국립교도소, 국립대학교) 는 행정기관으로 보지 않는다. 3. 영조물기관(서울대학교, 국립교도소, 국립대학교)은 행정기관으로 보지 않는다. 오픈 오피스에서 셋 다 맞게 나오는데, 어떤 문장이 맞는 건가요?
- 답변 : 소괄호는 '니체(독일의 철학자)는 이렇게 말했다.'와 같이 붙여 쓰고('한글 맞춤법' 문장 부호 규정 참고.), 조사는 앞말에 붙여 적습니다. 그리고 소괄호로 묶인 내용을 조사의 이형태를 결정하는 환경으로 삼지 않는 것이 일반적입니다. 따라서 제시하신 것 중, 3번과 같이 쓰는 것이 적절하겠습니다.
띄어쓰기
The International System of Units
- http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/
- Pocket version (si_pocket_en.pdf)
- Full version (8th edition 2006) (si_brochure_8_en.pdf)
- Updates to the 8th edition (si_supplement_2014.pdf)
숫자와 단위 (Kriss)
일반원칙
단위 기호의 표기에 관한 일반 원칙은 제9차 CGPM (1948)에서 처음으로 제안되었다. 그 후 이들이 채택되어 ISO/TC 12에 의해서 다듬어 졌는데, 그 내용은 ISO 31 양과 단위에 상세히 수록되었다. SI 단위 기호(많은 SI 이외의 단위기호도 포함)는 다음과 같이 표기한다. 언어에 따라 단위 명칭은 다를지라도, 단위기호는 국제적으로 공통이며 같은 방법으로 사용한다.
단위 기호의 표기에 관한 일반 원칙은 제9차 CGPM (1948)에서 처음으로 제안되었다. 그 후 이들이 채택되어 ISO/TC 12에 의해서 다듬어 졌는데, 그 내용은 ISO 31 양과 단위에 상세히 수록되었다. SI 단위 기호(많은 SI 이외의 단위기호도 포함)는 다음과 같이 표기한다. 언어에 따라 단위 명칭은 다를지라도, 단위기호는 국제적으로 공통이며 같은 방법으로 사용한다.
- 단위기호는 일반적으로 로마체(직립체)를 쓴다. 이 말은 본문의 활자체와는 관계없이, 양의 기호는 이탤릭체(사체)로 쓰며, 단위 기호는 로마체로 써야 함을 뜻한다. 일반적으로 단위기호는 소문자로 표기하지만 단위의 명칭이 사람의 이름에서 유래하였으면 그 기호의 첫글자는 대문자로 한다. 단위 명칭의 철자를 모두 써야 할 경우에는 문장의 첫글자 또는 섭씨도(degree Celcius)를 제외하고는 항상 소문자로 표기한다.
- 보기 : 양 : m (질량), t (시간), 등
단위 : kg, s, K, Pa, kHz, 등
단위 명칭 (영어) : meter, second, mole 등, newton, pascal, volt 등 - 숫자에서 반점(프랑스식)이나 온점(영국식)은 숫자의 정수부분과 소수부분을 나누는데 만 쓰인다. 숫자는 읽기에 편리하게 세 자리씩 묶어 써도 무방하지만 각 묶음 사이의 띄어 쓴 자리에 온점이나 반점을 사용해서는 아니 된다.
- 어떤 양을 수치와 단위기호로 나타낼 때 그 사이를 한 칸 띄어야 한다. 다만 평면각의 도, 분, 초의 기호와 수치 사이는 띄지 않는다.
- 보기 : 35 mm이며, 35mm가 아님
32 ℃이며, 32℃가 아님
2.37 lm 이며 2.37lm (2.37 lumens)가 아님
25°, 25°23′, 25°23′27″ 등은 옳음
- 백분율(%)이 SI 단위는 아니지만 단위 기호로 사용할 때는 수치와 한 칸 띄어야 한다. 또한 이것을 사용할 때는 반드시 기호(%)를 사용해야 하며, 명칭 "percent"(또는 "퍼센트", "프로")를 사용하면 안 된다.
- 보기 : 25 %이며, 25%나 또는 25 percent가 아님.
SI 단위기호의 대수학
- 대수학 CIPM은 ISO/TC 12에서 채택한 일반원칙에 따라서 SI 단위기호를 사용하는 대수학적 표현은 표준화된 형태로 쓰도록 권고하고 있다. 두 개 이상의 단위의 곱으로 표시되는 유도단위는 가운뎃점을 찍거나 한 칸을 띄어 쓴다.
- 보기 : N · m 또는 N m
주) 위의 두 번째의 경우 ISO의 규칙으로는 한 칸을 띄지 않고 붙여서 쓸 수도 있게 되어 있으나, 이 경우에는 사용하는 단위의 기호가 접두어의 기호와 같을 때는(meter와 milli의 경우) 혼동을 일으키지 않도록 특히 유의하여야 한다.
예로서, Nm이나 m · N을 써서 mN과 구별하여야 한다. 왜냐하면 mN은 밀리뉴턴(millinewton)을 뜻하기 때문이다. 따라서 mN은 밀리뉴턴인 경우에만 사용하여야 한다.
또 다른 예로서, m/s의 경우, m·s-1 또는 m s-1은 가능하나 ms-1으로 하면 안 된다 [이 때는 (ms)-1을 뜻함]. 따라서 항상 가운뎃점을 찍거나 한 칸을 띄어 쓰는 것이 좋은 방법이다. 두 개의 단위의 나누기로 표시되는 유도단위를 나타내기 위하여 빗금, 횡선 또는 음의 지수를 사용한다.
보기 : m/s 또는 또는 m · s-1 - 빗금은 곱하기 기호나 나누기 기호와 같은 줄에 사용할 수 없다. 빗금 다음에 두개 이상의 단위가 올 때는 반드시 괄호로 표시하여 모호함을 없애주어야 한다. 복잡한 경우에는 혼돈을 피하기 위하여 음의 지수나 괄호를 사용한다.
- 보기 : m/s2 또는 m·s-2이며, m/s/s 가 아님.
m·kg/(s3·A) 또는 m·kg·s-3·A-1이며, m·kg/s3/A도 아니고, m·kg/s3·A 도 아님.
- 단위기호와 단위명칭을 같은 식에 혼합하여 사용하면 안 된다.
- 보기 : joules per kilogram 또는 J/kg 또는 J·kg-1이며, joules/kilogram 또는 joules/kg 또는 joules·kg-1이 아님
Reference
유효숫자 (Significant figures in calculation)
Writing About Your Research: Verb Tense
Use Past Tense…
To describe your methodology and report your results.
When citing previous research in your article, use past tense. Whatever a previous researcher said, did or wrote happened at some specific, definite time in the past and is not still being done. Results that were relevant only in the past or to a particular study and have not yet been generally accepted as fact also should be expressed in past tense
When referring to the work of previous researchers.
"Smith (2008) reported that adult respondents in his study remembered 30 percent more than children."
"Previous research showed that children confuse the source of their memories more often than adults (Lindsey et al., 1991)."
To describe a fact, law or finding that is no longer considered valid and relevant.
"Nineteenth-century physicians held that women got migraines because they were 'the weaker sex,' but current research shows that the causes of migraine are unrelated to gender."
Use Present Tense. . .
To express findings that continue to be true.
Use present tense to express general truths or facts or conclusions supported by research results that are unlikely to change—in other words, something that is believed to be always true.
To refer to the article, thesis or dissertation itself.
To discuss your findings and present your conclusions.
Source: https://www.unl.edu/gradstudies/connections/writing-about-your-research-verb-tense
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th Ed. The Comprehensive Guide to Writing in the Health Sciences, University of Toronto.
To describe your methodology and report your results.
When citing previous research in your article, use past tense. Whatever a previous researcher said, did or wrote happened at some specific, definite time in the past and is not still being done. Results that were relevant only in the past or to a particular study and have not yet been generally accepted as fact also should be expressed in past tense
When referring to the work of previous researchers.
"Smith (2008) reported that adult respondents in his study remembered 30 percent more than children."
"Previous research showed that children confuse the source of their memories more often than adults (Lindsey et al., 1991)."
To describe a fact, law or finding that is no longer considered valid and relevant.
"Nineteenth-century physicians held that women got migraines because they were 'the weaker sex,' but current research shows that the causes of migraine are unrelated to gender."
Use Present Tense. . .
To express findings that continue to be true.
Use present tense to express general truths or facts or conclusions supported by research results that are unlikely to change—in other words, something that is believed to be always true.
To refer to the article, thesis or dissertation itself.
To discuss your findings and present your conclusions.
Source: https://www.unl.edu/gradstudies/connections/writing-about-your-research-verb-tense
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th Ed. The Comprehensive Guide to Writing in the Health Sciences, University of Toronto.
Notes on the Structure of a Scientific Paper (IMRAD)
[This material is adapted from material presented in an e-textbook from the English for Science and Technology Program at Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology.]
A scientific paper is a written report describing original research results. The format of a scientific paper has been defined by centuries of developing tradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics and the interplay with printing and publishing services. A scientific paper should have, in proper order, a Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion.
General advice on drafting & revising
“If the reader is to grasp what the writer means, the writer must understand what the reader needs”
Writing a first draft
- Leave a space or a mark
- Write a brief note to yourself about what you need to do
Writing additional Drafts
- lower-level concerns (word choice, punctuation)
Good writing
Revising paragraphs
Three characteristics of effective paragraphs
- Provide enough of a visual break to call attention to themselves
Strategies for improving unity
Strategies for Improving coherence
How do readers read?
Structure
Title
- If the study is of a particular species, name it in the title.
- If the inferences made in the paper are limited to a particular region, then name the region in the title.
Keyword List
Abstract (Note: write Abstract in past tense)
- S2: Present research/purpose
- S3: Methods/materials/procedures
- S4: Results/findings
- S5: Highlighting the results (optional)
- S6: Implications/imitations etc. (optional)
Introduction (Note: write Introduction in present tense)
- What did we know about the problem or need before?
- Why did we do the study? Why is this important? How will this study move the field forward?
- What does our study reveal? What did we anticipate?
[1] Create a research space: the work of others and/or what is known about the world is primary, and your own work is secondary
[2] Problem-focused format: Situation or background description, Problem, Addressing the problem, Evaluation
- Claiming that the topic is of central interest to the field
- Making generalization about the topic
- Reviewing previous research
2. Establish a niche
- Indicating a gap in previous research
- Raising a question
- Proposing an extension of previous research
3. Occupy the niche (present study)
- Outling the purpose and main features
- Finding and conclusions (optional)
- Previewing the organization (optional)
Materials and Methods (Note: write Materials and Methods in past tense)
- Often in field-based studies, there is a need to describe the study area in greater detail than is possible in the Introduction. Usually authors will describe the study region in general terms in the Introduction and then describe the study site and climate in detail in the Materials and Methods section. The sub-headings "Study Site", "General Methods" and "Analysis" may be useful, in that order.
- Equipment and materials available off the shelf should be described exactly (Licor underwater quantum sensor, Model LI 192SB) and sources of materials should be given if there is variation in quality among supplies. Modifications to equipment or equipment constructed specifically for the study should be carefully described in detail. The method used to prepare reagents, fixatives, and stains should be stated exactly, though often reference to standard recipes in other works will suffice.
- The usual order of presentation of methods is chronological, however related methods may need to be described together and strict chronological order cannot always be followed. If your methods are new (unpublished), you must provide all of the detail required to repeat the methods. However, if a method has been previously published in a standard journal, only the name of the method and a literature reference need be given.
- Be precise in describing measurements and include errors of measurement. Ordinary statistical methods should be used without comment; advanced or unusual methods may require a literature citation.
- Show your materials and methods section to a colleague. Ask if they would have difficulty in repeating your study.
Results (Note: write Results in past tense)
2. The results should be short and sweet, without verbiage. Do not say
- "It is clearly evident from Fig. 1 that bird species richness increased with habitat complexity".
- Say instead
- "Bird species richness increased with habitat complexity (Fig. 1)".
3. However, do not be too concise. The readers cannot be expected to extract important trends from the data unaided. Few will bother. Combine the use of text, tables and figures to condense data and highlight trends. In doing so be sure to refer to the guidelines for preparing tables and figures below.
- Graphs: Bar, frequency histograms, XY scatterplot, XYlinegraphs
- Diagrams
- Photos
- Drawings
- Schematics
- Maps
2. Tables (not abbreviated)
Discussion (Note: write Discussion in present tense)
- What do the results mean?
- Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses?
- Consider using PS organization or give an overview of what you have done
2. Report your accomplishments
- Highlight major findings or briefly describe a novel approach. Consider rounding numbers for ease of reading
3. Relate and evaluate your data to previous work
- Examine your data in light of previous research; in terms of consistency/inconsistency or superiority/inferiority; and in terms of sample or scope
4. Interpret
- Hypothesize why your results are the way they are
5. Anticipate
- Ward off counterclaims by acknowledging limitations and then mitigating; raise potential criticisms and then respond
6. Show implications
- Recommend further work or a course of action and give reasons for the recommendation
Source These guidelines were prepared with the aid of Robert Day's book "How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper" (ISI Press, Philadelphia, l979).
A scientific paper is a written report describing original research results. The format of a scientific paper has been defined by centuries of developing tradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics and the interplay with printing and publishing services. A scientific paper should have, in proper order, a Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion.
General advice on drafting & revising
“If the reader is to grasp what the writer means, the writer must understand what the reader needs”
Writing a first draft
- Don’t try to do it all in one day
- Write daily
- Write an outline or use other kinds of idea generation (ex. Thinkwise)
- Don’t expect a perfect piece of writing
- Write what you can
- Leave a space or a mark
- Write a brief note to yourself about what you need to do
- Write in a natural style
- Write the introduction last
Writing additional Drafts
- Take a break
- Print a copy to read
- Ask at least on other person to read your draft
- In general, work from
- lower-level concerns (word choice, punctuation)
Good writing
- In Western academic contexts, means writing that is reader-centered (reader-friendly), where the auther has clearly considered the needs and expectations of readers and constructed their text in ways that readers can easily follow.
Revising paragraphs
Three characteristics of effective paragraphs
- Well-developed
- Provide enough of a visual break to call attention to themselves
- Unified
- Coherent
Strategies for improving unity
- Eliminate
- Add
- Separate
- Rewrite your topic sentence
Strategies for Improving coherence
- Moving from old (familiar) information to new information
- Using stock transitional phrases (however, therefore, in addition, on the other hand)
- Using pronouns (it, she, et al.)
- Starting sentences with short, easily understood phrases
How do readers read?
- Skip the methods and results.
- They may also skip the introduction
- but if they do read it, they will then jump ahead to the discussion
- stop to look at the tables and figures
Structure
Title
- A title should be the fewest possible words that accurately describe the content of the paper.
- Omit all waste words such as "A study of ...", "Investigations of ...", "Observations on ...", etc.
- Indexing and abstracting services depend on the accuracy of the title, extracting from it keywords useful in cross-referencing and computer searching.
- If the study is of a particular species, name it in the title.
- If the inferences made in the paper are limited to a particular region, then name the region in the title.
Keyword List
- The keyword list provides the opportunity to add keywords, used by the indexing and abstracting services, in addition to those already present in the title. Judicious use of keywords may increase the ease with which interested parties can locate your article.
Abstract (Note: write Abstract in past tense)
- Questions
- Organization
- S2: Present research/purpose
- S3: Methods/materials/procedures
- S4: Results/findings
- S5: Highlighting the results (optional)
- S6: Implications/imitations etc. (optional)
Introduction (Note: write Introduction in present tense)
- Questions
- What did we know about the problem or need before?
- Why did we do the study? Why is this important? How will this study move the field forward?
- What does our study reveal? What did we anticipate?
- Organization
[1] Create a research space: the work of others and/or what is known about the world is primary, and your own work is secondary
[2] Problem-focused format: Situation or background description, Problem, Addressing the problem, Evaluation
- Claiming that the topic is of central interest to the field
- Making generalization about the topic
- Reviewing previous research
2. Establish a niche
- Indicating a gap in previous research
- Raising a question
- Proposing an extension of previous research
3. Occupy the niche (present study)
- Outling the purpose and main features
- Finding and conclusions (optional)
- Previewing the organization (optional)
Materials and Methods (Note: write Materials and Methods in past tense)
- Questions
- Description
- Often in field-based studies, there is a need to describe the study area in greater detail than is possible in the Introduction. Usually authors will describe the study region in general terms in the Introduction and then describe the study site and climate in detail in the Materials and Methods section. The sub-headings "Study Site", "General Methods" and "Analysis" may be useful, in that order.
- Equipment and materials available off the shelf should be described exactly (Licor underwater quantum sensor, Model LI 192SB) and sources of materials should be given if there is variation in quality among supplies. Modifications to equipment or equipment constructed specifically for the study should be carefully described in detail. The method used to prepare reagents, fixatives, and stains should be stated exactly, though often reference to standard recipes in other works will suffice.
- The usual order of presentation of methods is chronological, however related methods may need to be described together and strict chronological order cannot always be followed. If your methods are new (unpublished), you must provide all of the detail required to repeat the methods. However, if a method has been previously published in a standard journal, only the name of the method and a literature reference need be given.
- Be precise in describing measurements and include errors of measurement. Ordinary statistical methods should be used without comment; advanced or unusual methods may require a literature citation.
- Show your materials and methods section to a colleague. Ask if they would have difficulty in repeating your study.
Results (Note: write Results in past tense)
- Questions
- Organization
2. The results should be short and sweet, without verbiage. Do not say
- "It is clearly evident from Fig. 1 that bird species richness increased with habitat complexity".
- Say instead
- "Bird species richness increased with habitat complexity (Fig. 1)".
3. However, do not be too concise. The readers cannot be expected to extract important trends from the data unaided. Few will bother. Combine the use of text, tables and figures to condense data and highlight trends. In doing so be sure to refer to the guidelines for preparing tables and figures below.
- Expression
- Graphs: Bar, frequency histograms, XY scatterplot, XYlinegraphs
- Diagrams
- Photos
- Drawings
- Schematics
- Maps
2. Tables (not abbreviated)
Discussion (Note: write Discussion in present tense)
- Questions
- What do the results mean?
- Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses?
- Organization
- Consider using PS organization or give an overview of what you have done
2. Report your accomplishments
- Highlight major findings or briefly describe a novel approach. Consider rounding numbers for ease of reading
3. Relate and evaluate your data to previous work
- Examine your data in light of previous research; in terms of consistency/inconsistency or superiority/inferiority; and in terms of sample or scope
4. Interpret
- Hypothesize why your results are the way they are
5. Anticipate
- Ward off counterclaims by acknowledging limitations and then mitigating; raise potential criticisms and then respond
6. Show implications
- Recommend further work or a course of action and give reasons for the recommendation
Source These guidelines were prepared with the aid of Robert Day's book "How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper" (ISI Press, Philadelphia, l979).
하버드 글쓰기
하바드 대학 입학
당락을 가르는 중요한 잣대는
‘에세이’라고 부르는 글쓰기이다.
왜 글쓰기일까?
얼마나 창의적으로 논리적으로
생각하고 표현할 능력이 있는가?
비판적 사고력은
글쓰기로만 기를 수 있다.
창의력 키우기도 역시 글쓰기다.
글쓰기가 밥 먹여 주는 시대이다.
논리 삼총사는?
결론: 무슨 이야기야?
이유: 왜 그래야 하지?
근거: 그 이유가 타탕한 기준은?
하버드 글쓰기 비법,
OREO 맵을 사용하자.
Opinion 핵심 의견을 주장
Reason 이유와 근거를 대기
Example 사례와 예시를 들어 설명
Opinion/Offer 주장을 강조하고 제안!
자기 소개서에 응용하기
O 나는 어떤 성과를 낼 수 있다
R 근거를 그간 경력으로 설명한다.
E 가장 두드러진 사례로 설득한다.
O 채용된 후 기여할 내용을 제안한다.
가장 큰 권력은 바로 '영향력'이다.
선한 영향력으로 주변을 밝게 만든다.
"글쓰기는 그 영향력을 빚어내는 과정이다!”
-‘150년 하버드 글쓰기 비법’에서 다듬었습니다. (출처: 전남대 게시판)
당락을 가르는 중요한 잣대는
‘에세이’라고 부르는 글쓰기이다.
왜 글쓰기일까?
얼마나 창의적으로 논리적으로
생각하고 표현할 능력이 있는가?
비판적 사고력은
글쓰기로만 기를 수 있다.
창의력 키우기도 역시 글쓰기다.
글쓰기가 밥 먹여 주는 시대이다.
논리 삼총사는?
결론: 무슨 이야기야?
이유: 왜 그래야 하지?
근거: 그 이유가 타탕한 기준은?
하버드 글쓰기 비법,
OREO 맵을 사용하자.
Opinion 핵심 의견을 주장
Reason 이유와 근거를 대기
Example 사례와 예시를 들어 설명
Opinion/Offer 주장을 강조하고 제안!
자기 소개서에 응용하기
O 나는 어떤 성과를 낼 수 있다
R 근거를 그간 경력으로 설명한다.
E 가장 두드러진 사례로 설득한다.
O 채용된 후 기여할 내용을 제안한다.
가장 큰 권력은 바로 '영향력'이다.
선한 영향력으로 주변을 밝게 만든다.
"글쓰기는 그 영향력을 빚어내는 과정이다!”
-‘150년 하버드 글쓰기 비법’에서 다듬었습니다. (출처: 전남대 게시판)
Rules for Capitalization in Titles of Articles
If you have a look at the title of this article you will see that some letters are capitalized and some are not. Although the capitalization of titles can sometimes depend on the particular style of a writer or publication, there are some general rules to remember.
Capitalization Rules for Titles
The rules for capitalizing titles can vary according to a particular style guide, such as Associated Press Stylebook (AP), Chicago Manual of Style, and MLA style. They all have different rules for how to capitalize titles. So which one should you choose?
Well, it all depends if a certain style is required by your teacher, course, or subject/field. For example, MLA style is commonly used in the liberal arts or humanities, while AP style is popularly used in journalism. One suggestion is to choose one style, or check the style required by your teacher, and stick to it.
General Rule: Title Case
As discussed there are some exceptions to the rule; however, here is one general rule that you can apply for capitalizing titles. Capitalize the first, last and any important words in a title, which is known as Title Case or Headline Style.
In Titles: Do Capitalize
Generally, these parts of speech are capitalized in titles.
In Titles: Do Not Capitalize
As you have probably noticed "short" words, those with less than five letters, are generally lowercase in titles, unless they are the first or last words in a title.
Generally, we do not capitalize:
"Capitalize all words in titles of publications and documents, except a, an, the, at, by, for, in, of, on, to, up, and, as, but, or, and nor."
More Title Capitalization Rules
I. Sentence Case
Some writers and publications choose to use sentence case for titles. Basically the title is written as if it is a sentence, with only the first letter capitalized (however, proper nouns within the title are capitalized).
For example:
II. Advanced Rules
Here are some advanced rules for title capitalization:
Final Note
If you are writing titles (or headings) for a school paper, it is recommended to choose one style for capitalizing titles and be consistent throughout.
Further, no matter your personal preference make sure that you write the exact titles of books, newspapers, journals, etc. as they are written on the original document (even if they do not follow common capitalization rules).
Read more at http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/capitalization/rules-for-capitalization-in-titles.html#qjAtR7maXsVYlGwA.99
Capitalization Rules for Titles
The rules for capitalizing titles can vary according to a particular style guide, such as Associated Press Stylebook (AP), Chicago Manual of Style, and MLA style. They all have different rules for how to capitalize titles. So which one should you choose?
Well, it all depends if a certain style is required by your teacher, course, or subject/field. For example, MLA style is commonly used in the liberal arts or humanities, while AP style is popularly used in journalism. One suggestion is to choose one style, or check the style required by your teacher, and stick to it.
General Rule: Title Case
As discussed there are some exceptions to the rule; however, here is one general rule that you can apply for capitalizing titles. Capitalize the first, last and any important words in a title, which is known as Title Case or Headline Style.
In Titles: Do Capitalize
Generally, these parts of speech are capitalized in titles.
- Nouns (man, bus, book)
- Adjectives (angry, lovely, small)
- Verbs (run, eat, sleep)
- Adverbs (slowly, quickly, quietly)
- Pronouns (he, she, it)
- Subordinating conjunctions (as, because, that)
In Titles: Do Not Capitalize
As you have probably noticed "short" words, those with less than five letters, are generally lowercase in titles, unless they are the first or last words in a title.
Generally, we do not capitalize:
- Articles: a, an, the
- Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but, or, for, nor, etc.
- Prepositions (fewer than five letters): on, at, to, from, by, etc.
"Capitalize all words in titles of publications and documents, except a, an, the, at, by, for, in, of, on, to, up, and, as, but, or, and nor."
More Title Capitalization Rules
I. Sentence Case
Some writers and publications choose to use sentence case for titles. Basically the title is written as if it is a sentence, with only the first letter capitalized (however, proper nouns within the title are capitalized).
For example:
- Budget wedding invitations
- Top 10 things to do in Paris
- Best technology blogs
II. Advanced Rules
Here are some advanced rules for title capitalization:
- Hyphenated compound words (High-Quality Web Services, First-Rate U.S. Lawyers, ) and open compounds (salad dressing, science fiction)
- The first word following a colon (Feminine Poetry: Ten Women Writers from Around the Word)
- Prepositions that belong to a phrasal verb (How to Back Up a Computer)
Final Note
If you are writing titles (or headings) for a school paper, it is recommended to choose one style for capitalizing titles and be consistent throughout.
Further, no matter your personal preference make sure that you write the exact titles of books, newspapers, journals, etc. as they are written on the original document (even if they do not follow common capitalization rules).
Read more at http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/capitalization/rules-for-capitalization-in-titles.html#qjAtR7maXsVYlGwA.99
The Rules of Capitalization
A sign reading "Workmen leaving their Work before the Whistle Blows, will be fined 2/6 for the first offence, and if repeated will be Discharged." There are a number of unnecessary words capitalized.
Not following capitalization rules or overusing capital letters can make your document look unprofessional. (Alan Green ©2009)
When to use capital letters
When asked, most of us would likely say we've got a handle on capitalizing words in English. After all, when you were six and you named your dog Mr. Flufflepants, there was no question in your mind as to what parts of the name needed to be capitalized, right?
However, it's important to know that, with regard to professional or academic writing, capitalization in English entails quite a bit more than simply knowing to begin names and titles with capital letters.
Some capitalization rules
Though there are numerous rules associated with capitalization, our editors highlight a few of the most common ones they encounter in academic and in ESL writing.
Capitalization rule #1
For example:
Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The only way to have a friend is to be one."
Capitalization rule #2
For example:
We don't capitalize the word "bridge" unless it starts a sentence, but we must capitalize Brooklyn Bridge because it is the name of a specific bridge.
OR
The word “country” would not normally be capitalized, but we would have to write China with a capital "C" because it is the name of a specific country.
OR
The word "state", while not normally capitalized, would be written with a capital if it is in the name of an organization, such as The State Board of Education.
Capitalization rule #3
Vicky Marquez, President
OR
Ms. Vicky Marquez
OR
Hello, Senator. It's nice to see you again.
Do not capitalize titles when they are not used as a direct address to a person. For example:
The senator will be in town today to inspect the building of the railway.
Capitalization rule #4
My favorite place in the world is Northern Ontario.
Do not capitalize "north," "south," "east," and "west" when giving directions:
Drive six blocks north, and then turn right.
Capitalization rule #5
A Life Less Ordinary (The word "A" would not normally be capitalized, but because it is the first word in the title, we must capitalize it.)
OR
War of the Worlds (The words "of" and "the" are not capitalized because they are small and are not at the beginning or end of the title.1)
Capitalization rule #6
Dear Billy,
OR
Regards,
John Smith
Capitalization rule #7
I like English, but math is my favorite subject. (English is capitalized because it is derived from the proper noun England, while math is not capitalized because it is not derived from a proper noun.)
Specific course titles should, however, be capitalized. For example:
I don't know what I'm going to do. I have to take Math 101 next year and it looks hard!
Capitalization rule #8
We have set this restriction: Do your chores before watching television. That includes washing the dishes.
Do not capitalize after a colon if you are writing a list, or if there is only one sentence following the colon:
There are many metals hidden away within the earth's crust: gold, zinc, and lead are just a few examples.
OR
There is a way to remember test information: study a lot the night before your big midterm!
Now you have a better idea of how to use capitals in your writing. Good luck with your next piece!
Learn English Grammar
1Exceptions to the "small words" rule do exist! Short verb forms such as is, are, and be must always be capitalized within titles, regardless of their location.
from https://www.scribendi.com
Not following capitalization rules or overusing capital letters can make your document look unprofessional. (Alan Green ©2009)
When to use capital letters
When asked, most of us would likely say we've got a handle on capitalizing words in English. After all, when you were six and you named your dog Mr. Flufflepants, there was no question in your mind as to what parts of the name needed to be capitalized, right?
However, it's important to know that, with regard to professional or academic writing, capitalization in English entails quite a bit more than simply knowing to begin names and titles with capital letters.
Some capitalization rules
Though there are numerous rules associated with capitalization, our editors highlight a few of the most common ones they encounter in academic and in ESL writing.
Capitalization rule #1
- Capitalize the first word in quotations, provided the quoted material is a complete sentence.
For example:
Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The only way to have a friend is to be one."
Capitalization rule #2
- Use capitals for proper nouns. In other words, capitalize the names of people, specific places, and things.
For example:
We don't capitalize the word "bridge" unless it starts a sentence, but we must capitalize Brooklyn Bridge because it is the name of a specific bridge.
OR
The word “country” would not normally be capitalized, but we would have to write China with a capital "C" because it is the name of a specific country.
OR
The word "state", while not normally capitalized, would be written with a capital if it is in the name of an organization, such as The State Board of Education.
Capitalization rule #3
- Capitalize titles when they are on the signature line of a letter, when the title comes immediately before a name, or when the title replaces the use of a name (i.e., a title used as a direct address).
Here are some examples:
Vicky Marquez, President
OR
Ms. Vicky Marquez
OR
Hello, Senator. It's nice to see you again.
Do not capitalize titles when they are not used as a direct address to a person. For example:
The senator will be in town today to inspect the building of the railway.
Capitalization rule #4
- Capitalize directions only when they refer to specific regions.
For example:
My favorite place in the world is Northern Ontario.
Do not capitalize "north," "south," "east," and "west" when giving directions:
Drive six blocks north, and then turn right.
Capitalization rule #5
- All large words in the titles of movies, books, and other publications should be capitalized, while all small words (a, an, the, but, and, if, as, or, nor, to name a few) should not be capitalized unless they are the first or last words in the title:
A Life Less Ordinary (The word "A" would not normally be capitalized, but because it is the first word in the title, we must capitalize it.)
OR
War of the Worlds (The words "of" and "the" are not capitalized because they are small and are not at the beginning or end of the title.1)
Capitalization rule #6
- The first word of a salutation should be capitalized, as well as the first word of a closing. For example:
Dear Billy,
OR
Regards,
John Smith
Capitalization rule #7
- Capitalize words derived from proper nouns. For example:
I like English, but math is my favorite subject. (English is capitalized because it is derived from the proper noun England, while math is not capitalized because it is not derived from a proper noun.)
Specific course titles should, however, be capitalized. For example:
I don't know what I'm going to do. I have to take Math 101 next year and it looks hard!
Capitalization rule #8
- Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a colon.
For example:
We have set this restriction: Do your chores before watching television. That includes washing the dishes.
Do not capitalize after a colon if you are writing a list, or if there is only one sentence following the colon:
There are many metals hidden away within the earth's crust: gold, zinc, and lead are just a few examples.
OR
There is a way to remember test information: study a lot the night before your big midterm!
Now you have a better idea of how to use capitals in your writing. Good luck with your next piece!
Learn English Grammar
1Exceptions to the "small words" rule do exist! Short verb forms such as is, are, and be must always be capitalized within titles, regardless of their location.
from https://www.scribendi.com
Capitalization in Titles and Headings -- Hyphenated Words
The Gregg Reference Manual (10th edition)
In a heading or title, capitalize all the elements except articles (a, an, and the), short prepositions (at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out, to, and up), and short conjunctions (and, as, but, if, or, and nor).
The Chicago Manual of Style (15th edition)
Simple Rule (acceptable but not preferred)
Capitalize only the first element of a hyphenated word unless any subsequent element is a proper noun or adjective.
Traditional Rules (preferred)
Comparing Examples
In the following chart, I have provided a number of examples and have compared how each of the three guidelines would treat such words if they were used in a title or heading.
GreggChicago / TraditionalChicago / Simple
*the word first, if lowercased, would look inconsistent here
**lowercase short and unstressed elements
So, which set of rules do you like best? I personally prefer the simplicity and formality of Gregg's guidelines, but I usually defer to Chicago when editing books since it is used widely in publishing.
Remember, these rules apply only to titles and headings. Most of these words shouldn't be capitalized at all if used within a paragraph.
http://www.accu-assist.com/grammar-tips-archive/GrammarTip_capitalization-titles-headings-hyphenated-words.htm
In a heading or title, capitalize all the elements except articles (a, an, and the), short prepositions (at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out, to, and up), and short conjunctions (and, as, but, if, or, and nor).
The Chicago Manual of Style (15th edition)
Simple Rule (acceptable but not preferred)
Capitalize only the first element of a hyphenated word unless any subsequent element is a proper noun or adjective.
Traditional Rules (preferred)
- Always capitalize the first element.
- Capitalize any subsequent elements unless they are articles, prepositions, coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor) or such modifiers as flat or sharp following musical key symbols.
- If the first element is merely a prefix or combining form that could not stand by itself as a word (anti, pre, etc.), do not capitalize the second element unless it is a proper noun or proper adjective.
- Do not capitalize the second element in a hyphenated spelled-out number (twenty-one, etc.).
- Break a rule when it doesn't work (see the examples below that are followed by asterisks).
Comparing Examples
In the following chart, I have provided a number of examples and have compared how each of the three guidelines would treat such words if they were used in a title or heading.
GreggChicago / TraditionalChicago / Simple
- English-Speaking / English-Speaking / English-speaking
- Two-Thirds / Two-thirds / Two-thirds
- Under-the-Counter / Under-the-Counter / Under-the-counter
- Anti-Intellectual / Anti-intellectual / Anti-intellectual
- Record-Breaking / Record-Breaking / Record-breaking
- E-Mail / E-mail / E-mail
- Cross-Stitching / Cross-Stitching / Cross-stitching
- Twenty-First / Twenty-first / Twenty-first
- Up-to-Date / Up-to-Date / Up-to-date
- De-Emphasize / De-emphasize / De-emphasize
- Mid-September / Mid-September / Mid-September
- Twenty-First-Century / Twenty-First-Century* / Twenty-first-century
- Hand-Me-Downs / Hand-me-downs** / Hand-me-downs
- Run-Ins and Take-Offs / Run-ins and Take-offs** / Run-ins and Take-offs
*the word first, if lowercased, would look inconsistent here
**lowercase short and unstressed elements
So, which set of rules do you like best? I personally prefer the simplicity and formality of Gregg's guidelines, but I usually defer to Chicago when editing books since it is used widely in publishing.
Remember, these rules apply only to titles and headings. Most of these words shouldn't be capitalized at all if used within a paragraph.
http://www.accu-assist.com/grammar-tips-archive/GrammarTip_capitalization-titles-headings-hyphenated-words.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_type